Discoveries of less value

Discoveries of less value Post Date: Mon, 28 Jul 2008 11:18:41 +0000
A second edition of the Ausdehnungslehre of 1844 was printed in 1877. Peirce gave a representation of Grassmann s system in the logical notation, and Hyde of the University of Cin cinnati wrote the first text-book on Grassmann s calculus in the English language. Discoveries of less value, which in part covered those of Grassmann and Hamilton, were made by Saint- Venant (1797- 1886), who described the multiplication of vectors, and the addition of vectors and oriented areas; by Cauchy; whose "clefs algebriques " were units subject to combinatorial mul tiplication, and were applied by the author to the theory of elimination in the same way as had been done earlier by Grassmann; by Justus Bellavitis (1803-1880), who published in 1835 and 1837 in the Annali delle Scienze his calculus of sequipollences.

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1. - Upon this Post Date: Sun, 27 Jul 2008 17:17:10 +0000
Nor were the opinions voiced by the officers so wanting in frankness as not to approach very closely to insolence, especi- ally as regards a, for some reason, very frequently expressed remark that any boyarin who should be found offering opposition to "Our Little Mother Katerina" would have his head broken. Then from the square before the Palace there resounded a drum-beat, and in front of the building the two Regiments of Guards, summoned thither, like their officers, no one quite knew how, or by whom, were seen to be deploying into line. Upon this.

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2. - " What the Guards most relied Post Date: Sun, 27 Jul 2008 17:00:56 +0000
Prince Repnin, President of the Collegium of War, exclaimed angrily : " Who hath dared send for these my regiments without the bidding of their Field Marshal, myself." but the Semenovskis commanding officer, Buturlin, calmly replied that the summoner of the troops had been himself, in pur- suance of an order from the Tsaritsa, "unto whom let her every subject, including thyself" a suggestive touch "now render allegiance." What the Guards most relied upon for ensurance of acceptance of their action was a suggestion that, by having the Tsaritsa crowned during the previous year, the Tsar had meant to indicate that, under this Law of 5 February, she was to become his successor.

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3. - " Thus not a word was Post Date: Sun, 27 Jul 2008 16:45:19 +0000
So in due form the Senators proclaimed her "Autocrat Empress," and, having thus abrogated the Law of 5 February through their own interpretation of it, issued, on behalf of themselves, of the Synod, and of the General Staff (even though neither the one nor the other had taken part in the conference), a Manifesto in which Catherines accession was set forth, not as a mere Senatorial-electoral act, but as an actual Senatorial interpretation of the deceased Tsars will. And, that done, it remained only for the Senate to invest Catherine with the Crown and Imperial Unction, and then to publish a proclamation to the effect that the Senate desired all men to know what had been done, and, on the strength of it, render "Catherine, Autocrat of All the Russias, faithful service." Thus not a word was said about a Zemski Sobor, hitherto the legal and fundamental source of successional right in the absence of an Imperial heir.

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4. - Throughout it the Government never Post Date: Sun, 27 Jul 2008 16:33:10 +0000
No, for the first time ancient usage was made to yield to present actuality, and the more easily in that, though it was to the time-honoured form of election by Sobor that Peter himself had owed his position, action on Peters own part during his reign had rendered that assembly obsolete, and all men save the outspoken Pososhkov had forgotten it Pososhkov alone venturing to recall the occasion of the assemblys last meeting, which had been when representatives of all the social classes had been summoned to frame the Ulozhenie. As things turned out, Catherines reign proved to be a brief one only. Throughout it the Government never ceased to court the Guards, as may be seen from the Governments own notices in the Official Gazette, which show the authorities to have been so anxious to cultivate the Guards favour that actually they induced the Empress to receive the Corps officers in her tent at reviews, and tender them wine with her own hands ! Against this there remains the fact that the favour shown to the Corps helped to make Catherines two-years reign a reign of peace; and to the same result contributed the fact that her interference in State matters was as scanty as was her comprehension of them her prime solicitude being enjoyment of her private life, which was so irregular that, corpulent and unhealthy though she was, she would remain sitting at banquets with her intimates until five oclock in the morning, and leave the administration of the country to look after itself.

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5. - And all the time there Post Date: Sun, 27 Jul 2008 16:20:48 +0000
In fact, a foreign ambassador says of that administration that "in it there was not a man with a thought for aught else than what he might steal therefrom," and that especially as regards the closing year of her life, Catherines various whims cost the country a sum approaching to an equivalent of 6,500,000 (modern) roubles. And all the time there were mal- contents drinking healths to the dispossessed Grand Duke. And all the time there were police carrjang out daily hangings of incautious babblers.

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6. - From Catherine the Catherine-Menshikov party Post Date: Sun, 27 Jul 2008 16:00:52 +0000
And all the time the representatives of foreign Governments were reporting these things to their principals. Peter II also had his road to the throne prepared by a Guards-assisted court intrigue. From Catherine the Catherine-Menshikov party, of course, wished to see the throne to devolve to one of the Empresss daughters, but public opinion supported the view that, as Peter I s grandson, the Grand Duke was the lawful heir, and when a feud threatened between the nephews adherents and those of the aunts, that is to say, between the family of Peters first wife and the belongings of his second (in other words, between the States two agelong sources of trouble, sources bound to exist where the court resembled a fortified manor), the wily Ostermann sought to smoothe the contestants hackles with a proposal that the twelve-year-old nephew should marry his ovm seventeen-year-old aunt Elizabeth.

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7. - However that may be Post Date: Sun, 27 Jul 2008 15:50:12 +0000
In fact, he even attempted to justify this consanguineous union with references to Biblical and primitive methods of race propagation, until Catherine herself could not but cold-shoulder the scheme. Then the brains of certain foreign ambas- sadors evolved a plan, and a still more brilliant one, for conciliating the two hostile parties : and it lay in a proposal that Menshikov should change over to the grandson, and, that done, endeavour to persuade the Empress to make him, the grandson, her successor on condition that he, the grandson, married his, Menshikovs daughter, who at the time was even younger, by a year or two, than the Grand Dukes seventeen-year-old aunt ! And finally, when the brief malady preceding Catherines death in 1727 seized her in its grip, the members of the three chief administrative institutions (the Supreme Privy Council created of Catherine herself, the Senate, and the Synod) assembled in the Palace, and, with the Presidents of Colleges and the com- manding officers of the Guards (who had now come to be a sort of State corporation, and a necessary consenting party before any grave political matter could be decided), discussed the question of the Empresss successor: with the result that, as this conclave expressed a marked preference for the grandson over Peters daughters, Catherine reluctantly appointed that grandson her heir though during the last few days of her life, it is said, she again and again told Menshikov that she would much rather have be- queathed the throne to her daughter Elizabeth, and that she had sub- mitted only because otherwise her reign might not end in peace. However that may be, a deathbed will was framed in haste, and as hastily signed, for the Empress, by the Princess Elizabeth: but though this will, an instru- ment having for its primary purpose a reconciliation of the two mutually hostile factions, or sets of adherents, represented by Peters two families, nominated to the throne, alternatively, Peters grandson, the Tsarevna Anna, the Tsarevna Elizabeth, and the Grand Duchess Natalia (sister to Peter II.

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8. - No, the sole significance Post Date: Sun, 27 Jul 2008 15:38:58 +0000
), and, again alternatively, any possible issue or posterity of those persons, who were severally to ascend the throne if his or her predecessor died childless, the will has no real importance in the history of the Imperial succession, since with the death of the next-succeeding heir, Peter II., the throne began to change hands in such an order as even the most far-sighted Imperial testament could never have foreseen. No, the sole significance or status in the history of our Imperial successional legislation possessed by Catherines will is due to the fact that it did at least import into that legisla- tion, if not a new norm, at all events a new tendency, since at one and the same time it took its stand upon the Law of Peter I and sought to fill that Laws legislative gaps in both cases with a view to finally establishing a legal and permanent successional order and to regulating the Sovereigns office in such a manner that the regulations themselves should constitute a fundamental law on the subject.

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9. - In January, 1730, Peter II Post Date: Sun, 27 Jul 2008 15:26:47 +0000
In fact, the document openly says that it is such a law, and a law, at that, competent to remain operative and effective for ever, and at no time to be abolished. And, adding this to the fact that, on the morrow of Catherines decease, the document was read to the Imperial Family and chief Officials of State assembled in solemn conclave, we may look upon the testament of 1727 as a direct precursor of the Law of 1797, whilst incidentally it is interesting to note, as bearing upon the history of Russian legislative theory, that the testament had its plan of exposition drawn up by Bassevitch, Holsteiner Minister in St Petersburg. In January, 1730, Peter II caught a chill which, before he had long been suffering from it, threatened to become fatal : and as soon as that was per- ceived to be the case the timeserving Prince Alexis Dolgoruki and his son Ivan, prime companion to the young Emperor, decided to attempt a trick for laying their hands upon the Supreme Power, and therefore convoked a family council at which they propounded a will said to have come straight from the hand of the dying Tsar, and to be an instrument devising the Supreme Power to Prince Alexis daughter Catherine, the Tsars fiancee.

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10. - The details were as follows Post Date: Sun, 27 Jul 2008 15:09:29 +0000
And when Field-Marshal Vasilii Vladimirovitch expressed doubts as to whether such a shameless stratagem could possibly succeed, Dolgoruki retorted: "O Prince, art not thou commander of the Preobrazhenski Regi- ment, and is not thy son, the Prince Ivan, a major in the same, and wU the Semenovski Regiment, any more than thine own, withstand this testa- ment?" Which speech shows how completely by now the courtiers standing nearest to the Throne had come to take it for granted that, given the Guards support, even the most important question of State would achieve a solution, and could in advance be counted upon to succeed. And, sure enough, when, on the passing of Peter II, the Supreme Privy Council essayed to cut across the true order of succession (and thereby to flout the authority of the chief administrative institutions which were the Councils fellows) by electing to the throne Anna, daughter of Tsar Ivan, and widow of the Duke of Cour- land, and limiting her power, the enterprise at once failed owing to inter- vention on the part of the Guards and the dvorianstvo. The details were as follows.

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